Human Body Orientation
Chapter 1
1. (pg
3) Contrast
: Anatomy the structure
descriptive; parts, shape, size
Physiology the function of
the structures
2. List the levels of organization in order from the most complex to the least complex. (pg 4)
1.
Organism the
individual person
2.
Organ system
3.
Organ
4.
Tissues
5.
Cells
6.
Chemical (not a concern
for this class)
3. A group of specialized cells similar in function and origin is? A tissue
A group of
tissues is? An organ
What is the
study of tissues? Histology
What is the
study of the transmission of disease? Epidemiology
What is the
microscopic study of cells? Cytology
What is the
sum of all chemical reactions in the body? Metabolism
(controlled by thyroid)
4. List 11 body
systems and state the functions of these systems and the organs in these
systems.
|
System |
Function(pg
6-7) |
Organs |
|
Integumentary |
External
body covering (protection); protects deeper tissues; synthesizes
vitamin D; site of cutaneous nerve receptors, sweat (temp.
regulation), oil glands, get rid of waste products |
Hair, skin, nails |
|
Skeletal |
Protects
& supports body organs; provides framework for muscles to cause
movement; blood cells are formed within; stores minerals |
Bones, joints |
|
Muscular |
Locomotion;
facial expression; maintain posture; produces heat |
Skeletal muscles |
|
Nervous |
Fast
acting control; regulator of function;
responds to internal & external changes by activating muscles and glands |
Brain, Sensory receptor, Spinal Cord, Nerves |
|
Endocrine |
Slower
acting control; glands secrete hormones to
regulate processes: growth, reproduction, metabolism by body cells |
Pineal gland, pituitary gland,
thyroid gland, parathyroid, thymus, adrenal gland, pancreas, ovary,
testis |
|
Cardiovascular |
Transportation
of blood; carries O2, CO2, nutrients, wastes, etc.; heart pumps blood |
Heart, blood vessels |
|
Lymphatic
/ Immunity |
Picks up
leaked fluid puts back into bloodstream; houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) immune system |
Thymus, lymphatic vessels, thoracic duct, spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, red bone marrow |
|
Respiratory |
Keeps
blood supplied with O2; removes
CO2; through walls of air sacs in lungs |
Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lung, bronchus |
|
Digestive |
Breaks
down food into absorbable units that enter blood for distribution to body
cells; indigestible foodstuffs are
eliminated as feces |
Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus, liver, gall bladder |
|
Urinary |
Eliminates
nitrogenous wastes from body; regulates
water, electrolyte, acid-base balance |
Kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra |
|
Male
Reproductive |
Produce
sperm, hormones; production of offspring; delivery to female reproductive
system |
Prostate gland, ductus deferens, scrotum, testis, penis |
|
Female
Reproductive |
Produce
eggs, female sex hormones; sites for fertilization, development of fetus;
mammary glands produce milk for newborn |
Mammary glands (in breasts), ovary, uterine tube, uterus, vagina |
What system
are the spleen, tonsils, and thymus in? Lymphatic
system
What
distributes oxygen and nutrients and carries away wastes? Cardiovascular
What system
makes and matures most blood cells? Skeletal
What systems
protect against disease? Lymphatic, Skeletal,
cardiovascular, integumentary
What system
returns protein and plasma to the blood stream? Lymphatic
What system
eliminates liquid wastes and regulates fluid balance? Urinary
What system is
made of glands that make hormones? Endocrine
What system
contains hair, skin, and sweat glands? Integumentary
What system
includes the liver and gall bladder? Digestive
What 2 systems
regulate homeostasis? Endocrine, Nervous
What system
supports and protects, stores minerals, and assists in body movements? Skeletal
5. (pg
10)
Define
homeostasis. The bodys ability to maintain
relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world changes
continuously; constant internal environment.
List some
factors that would disturb it. Anything that
changes what you are doing, i.e. standing up.
The internal
environment of the body is the extracellular fluid. True or False? But not all extracellular fluid; interstitial is between or around the cells, not blood;
extracellular is outside the cell,
includes the blood and interstitial fluid.
Does
extracellular fluid include intracellular (inside
the cell)
fluid? NO
Homeostasis is
regulated by what two systems? Endocrine,
Nervous
Describe
negative feedback. (pg 11) It causes a reduction or increase in the amount of a certain
substance; increases when you want more; it causes the variable to change
direction opposite to that of the initial change, returning it to its
ideal value.
If negative
feedback were operating in the body (which it usually is for most processes)
and NaCl concentration is lowered, the body would raise the NaCl in
response. (pg 13)
If positive
feedback was operating in the body (which it usually is not for most
processes), and the NaCl concentration is lowered, the body would lower the NaCl. (pg 13) Childbirth
example
6. Describe
anatomical position. (pgs 15 & 16)
|
Term |
Definition |
Example |
|
|
Superior (cranial) |
Toward the head end or upper part of the body; above |
|
The head is superior to the abdomen. |
|
Inferior (caudal) |
Away from the head end or toward the lower part of the body; below |
|
The navel is inferior to the chin. |
|
Anterior (ventral) |
Toward or at the front of the body; in front of |
|
The breastbone is anterior to the spine. |
|
Posterior (dorsal) |
Toward or at the back of the body; behind |
|
The heart is posterior to the breastbone. |
|
Medial |
Toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of |
|
The heart is medial to the arm. |
|
Lateral |
Away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of |
|
The arms are lateral to the chest. |
|
Proximal |
|
|
The elbow is proximal to the wrist. |
|
Distal |
Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk |
|
The knee is distal to the thigh. |
|
Superficial |
|
|
The skin is superficial to the skeletal muscles. |
|
Deep |
Away from the body surface; more internal |
|
The lungs are deep to the skin. |
The stomach is
inferior to the heart. The elbow is distal / inferior to the shoulder. The sternum is anterior / superficial to the heart. The spinal cord
is posterior to the heart. The cheeks are lateral to the nose, superior
/ medial to the arm, and superior / lateral
to the navel.
7.
Frontal Plane
(pgs 15 & 17)
What planes of section produce a top and bottom half? Transverse; Horizontal; Cross section
A left and right? Median (midsagittal); sagittal; parasagittal (not directly on the midline)
A front and
back? Frontal Planes; Coronal
An inferior
and superior? Cross Section; Transverse; Horizontal
A medial and
lateral? Sagittal; Median
An anterior
and posterior? Frontal
8. Locate and
name the organs and the coverings of the organs in the: (pgs 18, 19)
|
Ventral Body Cavities |
Organs |
Coverings |
|
Mediastinum (thoracic) |
Heart
(anterior) |
Visceral
pericardium Parietal
pericardium |
|
Trachea; Esophagus
(posterior) |
||
|
Pleural cavity (thoracic) |
Lungs |
Visceral
pleura Parietal
pleura |
|
Pericardial Cavity (thoracic) |
Heart
(anterior) |
Visceral
pericardium Parietal
pericardium |
|
Abdominal cavity |
Stomach;
pancreas; intestines; spleen; liver; kidneys; etc. |
Visceral
peritoneum Parietal
peritoneum |
|
Pelvic Cavity |
Reproductive
organs; bladder; rectum |
Visceral
peritoneum Parietal
peritoneum |
Visceral (on an organ) There is an imaginary line
between the Abdomen and Pelvic Cavities
Parietal (lining a cavity)
Most of the
mediastinum is between (medial to) what two body cavities? Pleural cavities
The posterior
mediastinum is posterior to what cavity? Pericardial
cavity
Chemistry Chapter 2: pages
44 & 69
Mole -quantity of a chemical substance in grams; weight in grams
that equals the molecular weight in a liter of solution
Na
= 23 gr. (Periodic Table) 1 mole of
NaCl = 58 grams of NaCl
Cl = 35 gr.
pH =
acid = H+ pH Scale = 1
to 14 ; 7 is neutral
If
pH = 5 there is 10-5
moles of H+ per liter
there are 10-9 moles of OH- per liter
If
pH = 12 there is 10-12 moles of H+ per liter
there are 10-2 moles of OH- per liter
The larger the
pH the less acidic the solution
At 7 pH same
amount of H+ as OH-
PH
of Blood about 7.35 7.45
Acid a
substance that releases hydrogen ions (H+)
Base proton
acceptors; a substance that takes up hydrogen ions (H+)
(pgs
43, 44)
9. How many moles
of H+ per liter are there in a solution with a pH of 4? 104 moles of H+
What is the
concentration of OH- in moles per liter? 10-10 moles of OH-
A solution with a pH of 7.5 is more or less acidic than a pH solution of
7.4?
A solution with a pH of 7.5 has more or less H+ than the solution
with a pH of 7.4?
10. (pgs
55,53)Denaturing
a protein results in? unfolding of the 3-D
structure; destruction of protein
Proteins are
made where? ribosomes
Most enzymes
are made of what? Proteins; amino acids
What may
permanently alter proteins? High temperatures;
drop in pH
What is this
alteration called? Denaturation
Proteins are
the main functional part of the cell membrane True or False? (pg 69)
Cells - Chapter 3: pages 66, 67, etc.
11. Describe the
function and or composition of: (pg 66-67)
|
Cell Part |
Function |
Composition |
|
Mitochondria |
Synthesizes
ATP for energy |
Sausage or
cigar shaped |
|
Lysosomes |
Digestion
of cell parts; bacteria; viruses |
Acid
hydrolases, large sacs |
|
Golgi Apparatus |
Packages,
modifies, segregates proteins for secretion, storage into lysosomes |
|
|
Endoplasmic Reticulum |
Coils
through cytoplasm, divides cytoplasm into channels; location of most
ribosomes |
|
|
Nucleus |
Controls
cell |
Contains
Chromatin and nucleolus |
|
Nucleolus |
Houses RNA
inside nucleus |
Ribosomal
RNA, encompasses DNA |
|
Ribosomes |
Site of
protein synthesis |
RNA;
protein |
|
Cell Membrane |
Transportation;
gatekeeper; barrier |
Proteins;
double phospholipids |
|
Genes |
Blueprint
for proteins; |
DNA
sequences |
|
Chromatin |
DNA; genes |
Thin
strings DNA; interphase DNA |
|
Chromosomes |
DNA; life
blue print |
Short bar
like; formed in prophase |
|
Centrioles |
During
mitosis form spindle and asters; bases of cilia, flagella |
Paired
cylindrical bodies; nine triplets of microtubules |
|
Cilia |
Create
current to move items across cell |
Centrioles;
Respiratory & reproductive systems |
|
Flagella |
Used to
propel a cell |
Longer
cilia; human sperm tail |
The selective
permeability of the cell membrane depends on what several factors?
1.
Soluble in Lipid (fat);
simple diffusion; dissolving into cell membrane; O2, CO2 (pg
73)
2.
Size can it go through
the doors; usually only small things
3.
Charge on the substance;
outside of cell is positive; inside of cell is negative (pg 81)
An electrical
gradient or membrane potential exists in the cell membrane because the inside
of the membrane is negative relative to the outside. (pg 81)
How many genes
are there in a cell? thousands
What transcribes genes in the first step of protein synthesis? Messenger RNA from Nucleolus
Protein
synthesis takes place where? Ribosomes (pg 102)
What digests
old organelles? lysosomes
What do Golgi
and mitochondria look like? Stacks of pancakes
or pita bread; hot dog or cigar shaped
What is the
difference between cilia and flagella?
Cilia small; moves things across cell
Flagella
long cilia; causes motion of entire cell
Where are they
found?
Cilia surface of cell membrane; respiratory & reproductive systems
Flagella
human sperm
12. Describe crenation and hemolysis. (pg 74,75) In Red Blood Cells
Crenation loss of water; shrink; in hypertonic solution
Hemolysis gain of water; bloat; burst; in hypotonic solution
In what
situation would these processes occur?
Hypertonic Solution crenation
Hypotonic
Solution hemolysis
Isotonic
Solution cells stay the same size; no change; equal solution
List two
passive methods by which substances enter or exit from the cell. Diffusion; Osmosis
Do passive
processes require energy? NO
Do active
processes require energy? YES
Does the
process of osmosis require a membrane? YES
What kind of
membrane? SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE
Is it the
movement of any substance? NO
Any liquid? No, water!
Is osmosis an
active or passive process? passive
Contrast
phagocytosis and pinocytosis? Phagocytosis large
solids taken into the cell
Pinocytosis large amounts of liquids
taken into the cell
13. If there is no
net movement across a membrane separating 2 solutions, these solutions are isotonic to each other.
When
substances move down a concentration gradient (from high to low concentration),
this process is diffusion.
If substances
move the other direction (from low concentration to high), this process is
called active transport.
Which process
would require energy? Active transport
Which process
is active? Active transport
Perfume moves
from the bathroom to the living room by what process? Diffusion
14. If A has
more solutes (and less water) than B. A is hypertonic to B.
Which has the
higher osmotic pressure? Solution A with 10% NaCl or Solution B with 20%NaCl.
Why? More NaCl has more (higher) osmotic pressure; the higher the
salt the higher the osmotic pressure
B is what
relative to A? hypertonic or hypotonic
A is what
relative to B? hypertonic or hypotonic
Osmotic Pressure solution with the
most salt where the water is going (pg 75)
Name of the solution that the cell is
in tells how much salt is in the solution
15. If a red blood
cell, 10% NaCl, is placed in a 1% NaCl solution, the cell will shrink, swell, or stay the same?
What is the
change called? hemolysis
The 1%
solution would be hypotonic, hypertonic
or isotonic?
If a cell is
10% NaCl and is placed in a 90% NaCl solution, would the cell shrink, swell, or stay the same? shrink
Why? Water diffuses out of the cell into the solution
What is this
change called? crenation
Is the
solution hypotonic, hypertonic, or isotonic?
If the same
cell were placed in a 10% NaCl solution, what change would you observe? None
The solution
would be what relative to the cell? Isotonic
Cell Division Mitosis and
Meiosis Chapter 3 pg 97
Mitosis: Prophase:
1. chromosomes
appear / form from Chromatin
2. Nucleoli
Disappear
3. Mitotic
Spindle forms Centrioles separate
4. Nuclear
membrane disappears
Metaphase:
1. Chromosomes
cluster in the middle of cell
Anaphase:
1. Centromeres of
chromosome split
2. Chromatids are
separated
Telophase: (reverse of
Prophase)
1. Chromosomes
form Chromatin
2. Spindle
disappears
3. Nucleoli
Appear
4. Nuclear
Membrane forms
5. Cleavage
Furrow forms Cytokinesis begins
|
Mitosis |
Meiosis |
|
1. growth and repair |
1. egg and sperm production |
|
2. asexual reproduction |
2. sexual reproduction |
|
3. 1 cell produces 2 cells; one
series of steps |
3. 1 cell produces 4 cells; two
series of steps |
|
4. cells produced are identical to
the original |
4. cells produced are not identical
to the original |
|
5. cells produced have the same
number of chromosomes as the original cell; diploid to diploid; haploid to
haploid |
5. cells produced have half the
number of chromosomes as the original cell; diploid to haploid |
|
6. chromatids separate |
6. Meiosis I homologous pairs
separate;
Meiosis II chromatids
separate |
16. List the
stages of mitosis in order. (pg 97)
PMAT: Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Which is
longer interphase or mitosis? When cells are not dividing; DNA is in chromatin form
During what
stage of mitosis do these events occur?
Centrioles
move apart Prophase
Nucleoli
disappear Prophase
Chromatid
pairs separate Anaphase
Chromosomes
line up at the equator of the cell Metaphase
Cytokinesis
begins Telophase
17. Define
cytokinesis. The pinching of the cell membrane
to complete the physical division of a cell.
Cytokinesis
begins with the formation of what? The cleavage
furrow
18. The union of
gametes is called what? Fertilization
Chromosomes do
not double with each generation because of meiosis. Sex cells
have half the chromosomes
Diploid has two sets of chromosomes or one set? Two
sets
Haploid has
two sets of chromosomes or one? One set
19. Compare the
end result of mitosis and meiosis. (pg 1077)
Mitosis one cell becomes 2 new cells like original
Meiosis one cell becomes 4 sex cells (gametes); not like
original; not identical; half the chromosomes
Which process
occurs in two series of steps? Meiosis
Which process
only requires only one series of steps? Mitosis
Which process
is described in the following?
Diploid to
Diploid mitosis
Diploid to
haploid meiosis
Haploid to
haploid mitosis (in plants)
Haploid to
diploid fertilization
Which cell has
23 chromosomes: gametes, sperm, oocyte, skin cell,
liver, and muscle cells?
What is the
function of mitosis? Growth; repair
Meiosis? Egg & sperm production; sexual reproduction
Which process
occurs in most cells of the body? Mitosis
Which process
occurs only in the ovary and testes? Meiosis
Egg production
is called? Oogenesis
Sperm
production is called? Spermatogenesis
20. An increase in
size of an organ due to an increase in mitosis (in the number of cells) is
called?
Hyperplasia - Cancer
An increase in
the size of an organ due to an increase in the size of the cells is called?
Hypertrophy swelling or working out muscles with exercise